The Seven Dimensions of Culture were developed by Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden-Turner in 1997. They spent 10 years researching the preferences and values of people in dozens of cultures around the world. As part of this, they sent questionnaires to more than 46,000 managers of organizations in 40 countries.
Universalism and particularism
- How cultural groups view rules, regulations, and obligations.
- Universalistic groups place high value on following rules, regulations, and obligations. Rules and tasks take priority over relationships.
- Particularistic groups see rules as ‘guidelines’ which are based on situations and relationships, and subject to changing circumstances.
Individualism and communitarianism
- The way group members view and prioritize obligations – to themselves or to the group.
- Individualistic groups see personal achievement and independence as important. Individuals are given personal freedom to make decisions and take care of themselves.
- Communitarian groups provide safety, security, and identity to individuals in return for loyalty - the group comes before the individual.
Specific and diffuse
- How people perceive their work and their work relationships.
- Cultural groups with a specific orientation separate work and personal lives. Although members may have a good working relationship with others, they don’t mix business with pleasure.
- Cultural groups with a diffuse orientation extend work relationships into the personal. Members see work and personal relationships as inseparable entities.
Neutral and emotional
- How, and to what level emotions are expressed.
- Neutral groups hold back on showing emotions and prefer to be rational and logical during interactions. Feelings and thoughts are somewhat hidden.
- Emotional groups prefer to express emotions and share their thoughts and feelings, even in-the-moment when emotions run high.
Achievement and ascription
- How members view individual value and status within the group.
- Cultural groups with an achievement orientation believe that an individual’s value should be based on what they do and their performance, regardless of background.
- Cultural groups with an ascription orientation believe that an individual’s value should be based on who they are and their background, which then determines their roles, titles, and level of power.
Sequential time and synchronous time
- How group members view and manage time.
- Also known as ‘linear time’, groups with a sequential time orientation tend to commodify time. It can be used, lost, wasted, saved, etc. Value is placed on planning, prioritizing, and punctuality.
- Also known as ‘circular time’, groups with a synchronous time orientation see time as a concept. The past, present, and future are abstract and endless. Plans, timelines, and commitments are therefore flexible.
Internal direction and outer direction
- The way people relate to their environment.
- Groups and individuals with an internal direction (also known as ‘internal locus of control’) are in control and/or feel in control of their environment.
- Groups and individuals with an outer direction (also known as ‘external locus of control’) believe that things are outside of their control, that the external determines next steps and results.
Exercise
End of Module Assignment: presentation (1-1 or Group)
- Choose one of the models:
- Kluckhohn-Strodtbeck
- Geert Hofstede
- Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner
- Find a TV show clip or a movie trailer online (no more than two minutes)
- Analyze the video based on the perspectives of your chosen model.
- Discuss why you believe there is a connection.
- Your presentation should be at least five to eight minutes (including showing the video, and a quick Q&A session).
- Note: you don't need to use all value orientations from the chosen model. Just those that you feel connect to the video.
End of Module Summary
- Cultural value orientations are value sets used to interpret how values are expressed within and across groups. These provide general guidelines on how values manifest as actions and behaviors, and usually focus on national cultures.
- The Kluckhohn-Strodtbeck model categorizes value orientations into:
- human nature seen as basically good, evil, or a mix of both
- the relationship between human beings and the natural world: split into dominance, submission, and harmony
- time: divided into past, present, and future orientations
- the relationships between humans: divided into individual, collective, and collateral
- the preferred personality: divided into doing, growing, and being
- Hofstede’s model categorizes value orientations into:
- power distance (high and low)
- individualism and collectivism
- masculinity and femininity
- uncertainty avoidance (high and low)
- short- and long-term orientation
- indulgence and restraint
- Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner’s model categorizes value orientations into:
- universalism and particularism
- individualism and communitarianism
- specific and diffuse
- achievement and ascription
- sequential time and synchronous time
- internal direction and outer direction
References and further reading on concepts in this module:
Check out the following links and references.
- Kluckhohn-Strodtbeck
- Hofstede
Trompenaars F, and Hampden-Turner C., (1997). Riding the Waves of Culture, 2nd Edition, Boston: Nicholas Brealey.
-Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner
Martin J and Nakayama T (2022). Intercultural Communication in Contexts, 8th Edition, New York: McGraw Hill